Примерные темы для беседы на английском языке на кандидатском экзамене

Аспирант или соискатель должен уметь рассказывать о себе, своем научном исследовании и специальности, и о системах высшего образования в Великобритании, Австралии и США на английском языке, об университете, своем родном городе.

About myself

Krasnoyarsk

Our University

Higher education in Great Britain

Higher education in United States

Higher education in Australia

My research

Management

Marketing

Mechanical engineering

Ecology

Law

Land survey

Veterinary science

Mathematical modeling

Philosophy

Hydrology

Information technology

About myself

Let me introduce myself to you. My name is NNS. I am 22, I am married and I've got a family. My family is not very large - there are 3 of us in the family - my husband, my son and me.

My husband's name is S. He is a businessman - he is a managing director in a company dealing with furniture. My husband is well bred, well educated and very clever. He is a talented manager.

My son's name is N. he is almost 2 years old. Now he is at home and my mother looks after him.

Now some words about me. I graduated from Krasnoyarsk State Agrarian University in 1998. My diploma project subject was "Financial Management and Analysis of the Company's Activities". My scientific supervisor was Ponomarenko N. V. I worked hard on my subject and got interesting results which were installed at the Joint Stock Company "Dairy Product Producing Plant № 1". My Diploma project, on which I had worked for two years, aroused my great interest and I made up my mind to work on this problem further.

Now my scientific supervisor is Lyachin V. I. and the subject of my candidate thesis is "Enterprise Financial Condition as the Form of Ownership Relations Realization".

I studied English at school and at Krasnoyarsk State Agrarian University. There was a special English language-training program at the Department of Management, which I graduated from in 1998. The participants of it had chance to study English for 5 years and defend diploma project in English. We had English twice or three times a week, we read many books in the original took part in the students' scientific research conferences, published our articles. At the University I took part in the international educational seminar which was organized by the scientists of Deakin University from Australia and got a certificate of this University. English is my favourite subject. It helps me to read scientific literature in the original and use this information in my research so I have a chance to use knowledge and experience of foreign scientists.

Topical Vocabulary
well bred - хорошо воспитанный
well educated - хорошо образованный
to look after - присматривать
to work hard - работать упорно
make up one's mind - решиться
to defend a diploma project - защищать дипломный проект
to arise the interest - возникает интерес
to read many books in the original - читать много книг в оригинале
to take part in the international educational seminar - принимать участие в международном семинаре
experience - опыт
a scientist - ученый
research - исследование

Krasnoyarsk

Krasnoyarsk is the administrative, industrial, cultural and scientific center of the vast Krasnoyarsk territory. Its history goes back to 1628 when it was founded by a group of Cossacks under the leadership of Andrei Dubenski. First it was a small fortress, then the center of Yeniseiskaya province. The symbol of that period in the history of our region is an old chapel which first was made of wood, but in 1805 it was rebuilt by merchant I.Y. Novikov. It was rebuilt to honor the victory over steppe nomads and now it is made of stone.

All the buildings in old Krasnoyarsk were made of wood, but after the great fire in 1773 city dwellers began to build their houses of stone. The monuments of that time are 3 cathedrals - Trinity, Annunciation and Holy Virgin Intercession Feast cathedral. The last one was built in 1785 in baroque style on the intersection of Mira and Surikov Street and is still there.

Before the revolution Krasnoyarsk was a place of exile and many revolutionaries lived there. We should not forget our history, in order not to make such mistakes. That's why you should see some places in the city connected with the life of V.I. Lenin. The first one is the house of Gadalov which is located in Markovsky street. Here V.I. Lenin and his friends spent much time, discussing their political problems at the end of the 19th century. The second one is located in Lenin Street. It is the house of Krasikov. One more place of interest connected with the name of V.I. Lenin is steamship "Saint Nikolai" on board of which he sailed to Shushenskoye in 1892. There is also a monument of V.I. Lenin created by sculptor V.Pinchuk on the Revolution Square in front of the building where our regional administration works.

After the revolution Krasnoyarsk became the center of Krasnoyarsk region. This event took place in 1934. There are many places of interest connected with the history of new Krasnoyarsk. Our city is located on the banks of the Yenisei River which is one of the greatest rivers of Russia.

So Krasnoyarsk is a big port. The building of the Riverside Station was built according to the project of young architect Golubev and received the gold medal at the international exhibition in Brussel in 1958. Not far from Krasnoyarsk our people built Krasnoyarsk hydropower electric station which is one of the most powerful in the world. It is the center of the electro energy producing system of Siberia. Divnogorsk a wonderful town in taiga was built for those, who work here.

During the Great Patriotic War 35 plants were evacuated to Krasnoyarsk from the central regions of Russia, among them Sibstal, Sibtyazhmach, etc..., so Krasnoyarsk became an industrial center of Siberia. In 1945 the first harvesters were produced by "Kommunar" plant. Today our plants produce heavy and agricultural machines, aluminum, synthetic materials, refrigerators, ice - boxes, TV - sets and so on.

There are many educational institutions in the city, Universities, such as Medical academy, Aero - Space university and Siberian Federal university. The first medical college appeared in Krasnoyarsk in 1889 and it trained doctor's assistants for our region. In Krasnoyarsk there is the department of the Russian Academy of Sciences, it is located in Akademgorodok.

Krasnoyarsk is a cultural center of Siberia. There are many theatres there, such as the Opera and Ballet Theatre, the Drama Theatre, the Musical Comedy Theatre, etc. The history of Krasnoyarsk Drama Theatre goes back to 1928-1929 when it was established as theatrical group TRAM. When Yenisey province was reorganized into Krasnoyarsk region this group was reorganized into the Drama Theatre. In its repertoire there were many historical and revolutionary plays which were very popular at that time. At the beginning of 1970th the Theatre of Young Spectators was opened in the city. Some famous actors, such as Olyalin and Malevannaya worked there.

The Theatre of Opera and Ballet is also one of the fabulous performing art centers of the city. It is built of Sayany marble and is beautifully decorated. Our dancers Natalya Chekhovskaya and Vasily Polushin are famous all over the world.

Our Organ Hall is built in the gothic style and is used as an Organ Hall and Catholic Cathedral. Priests from Ireland have been working here for some years.

Krasnoyarsk is famous also for its wonderful painters. V.I. Surikov, one of the best Russian painters, was born and worked here. His native house is located in Lenin Street no far from the center. Surikov's paintings, such as "Capture of snow - town", "Boyarinya Morozova", etc. are masterpieces of our painting. In the picture - gallery named after V.I. Surikov which is located on the intersection of Marx Parizhskoy Kommuny Street there are many great pictures of classic and modern styles. In this house Frity of Nancen, a famous north explorer spent some time. Now this house belongs to the city. It is a picture gallery.

There are many wonderful hotels and shops, among them Trade Center "Krasnoyarye", "Krasnoyarsk Hotel", "Yachont Hotel", etc. in Krasnoyarsk.

There are many convenient tram, bus and trolley - bus routes in Krasnoyarsk, and the first metro - line is in project.

There are some nice places around the city. The Stolby National Park is one of them. It is the territory of our animals, trees and rocks.

I like my city and consider it to be one of the best cities of Russia.

Topical Vocabulary
administrative - административный
industrial - промышленный
cultural - культурный
scientific center - научный центр
to found - основывать
an old chapel - старая часовня
a cathedral - собор
a place of exile - место ссылки
educational institutions - образовательные учреждения
famous for - известен
consider - считать, полагать

Our University

Krasnoyarsk State Agrarian University was opened in 1953 to create the scientific base for agriculture in the Siberian region. Today it ranks among the best 10 Agrarian Universities in Russia. The University trains qualified specialists for different branches of agroindustry. They are trained at 13 departments - at the veterinary department, department of electrification and mechanization, at the departments of law and management and so on.

Our specialists deal with different problems of agroindustry, among them intensification of food production, improvement of soil fertility and yield increase, mechanization and electrification of agroindustry. They try to solve problems of soil improvement and yield increase by proper irrigation and drainage practices.

Our students have 2 old buildings and some new and quite modern buildings. There are many classrooms, lecture halls and different laboratories there. There is also a computer centre at the University. One of the new buildings is our library. Here we have a conference hall and some reading rooms.

In summer students of our University have their on-the-job training. They work at the crop-growing or livestock-breeding farm, or at the processing enterprise. Some students work as milkmaids and tractor drivers. It helps our students to get practical knowledge and skills and become good specialists.

Our department was opened in 1993. There are about 400 students there. We study different subjects, among them English, economics, marketing, management, accounting, computer technologies, etc.

We study six days a week Monday to Saturday. We have lectures, seminars, role-plays, laboratory works. We have highly-qualified teachers who deliver lectures and conduct seminars. Sometimes foreign teachers come to our University.

Topical Vocabulary

to create the scientific base - создать научную базу

agriculture - сельское хозяйство

department - факультет

improvement of soil fertility - улучшение плодородия почвы

yield increase - повышение урожайности

irrigation and drainage practices - методы полива и дренажа

on-the-job training - практика

crop - growing - выращивание урожая

livestock-breeding farm - ферма племенного животноводства

а milkmaid - доярка

а tractor driver - водитель трактора

processing enterprise - предприятие по переработке

Higher education in Great Britain

There are about 90 universities in Britain. They are divided into three types: the old universities (Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh Universities), the 19th century universities such as London and Manchester, and the new universities. Some years ago there were also polytechnics. After graduating from a polytechnic a student got a degree, but it was not a university degree. 31 former polytechnics were given university status in 1992.

Full courses of study offer the degree of Bachelor of Arts or Science. Most degree courses at universities last 3 years, language courses last 4 years (including a year spent abroad). Medicine and dentistry courses are longer (5-7 years).

Students may receive grants from their Local Education Authority to help pay for books, accommodation, transport and food. This grant depends on the income of their parents.

Most students live away from home, in flats or hostels. Students don't usually have a job during term time because their lectures, seminars, classes or tutorials (small groups) are full time. However, many students now have to work in the evenings.

University life is considered "an experience". The exams are competitive but the social life and living away from home are also important. There are not only universities in Britain but also colleges. Colleges offer courses in teacher training, courses in technology and some professions connected with medicine.

Topical Vocabulary

a polytechnic - политехнический институт

to get a degree - получить степень

former - бывший

Bachelor of Arts or Science - бакалавр гуманитарных или естественных наук

a degree course - курс, заканчивающийся присвоением степени

to last - продолжаться, длиться

to receive a grant - получать стипендию

Local Education Authority - местный орган образования

to pay for accommodation - платить за жилье

to live away from home - жить вне дома

a hostel - общежитие

a tutorial - практическое занятие

competitive - конкурсный (об экзамене)

to offer a course in teaching training - предлагать курс подготовки учителей

a course in technology - технический курс

Higher education in United States

In the United States, a student who has finished high school may want to continue in higher education. There are several ways to do it: universities, colleges, community colleges, and technical or vocational schools.

A university in the United States usually has several different colleges in it. Each has a special subject area. There may be a college of liberal arts where humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and mathematics are taught. There may be a college of education and a college of business. A program for undergraduates usually takes four years. University students get an undergraduate degree in the arts or sciences. It they complete a course of study they get Bachelor of Arts or Science degree.

Students may leave the university at this time. They may also go on for a graduate or professional degree. The university always has programs for graduate and professional study in many subjects.

The university may get money from several different sources. A publicly funded university gets money from the state government. A privately funded university gets money only from private sources. Or the university may be funded by a religious group.

A college does not have graduate or professional programs. If a college student completes a course of study in arts or science, he or she gets Bachelor of Arts or Science degree. If college students want to continue for a graduate or professional degree, they must go to University.

The program of study in the community college usually lasts two years. The community college may give courses in the regular academic subjects like dental technology, sewing and other non-academic subjects. Community colleges are nearly always publicly funded.

The technical or vocational school has only job training, it has no academic program. Programs may take from six months to two years and more. The technical or vocational school gives training for work in areas such as electronics, carpentry and others.

Topical Vocabulary

to continue in higher education - продолжить образование в ВУЗе

a community college - местный колледж

a technical school - техническое училище

a vocational school - училище

to have a special subject area - специализироваться в определенной области

a college of liberal arts - колледж свободных искусств

a humanity - гуманитарный предмет

a program for undergraduates - программа для студентов

to get an undergraduate degree in arts or sciences - получить степень (бакалавра) в области гуманитарных или естественных наук

to get Bachelor of Arts or Science - получить степень бакалавра в области гуманитарных или естественных наук

to go on for a graduate or professional degree - продолжить обучение с целью получения степени магистра или доктора или профессиональной степени

programs for graduate and professional study - программы обучения аспирантов и профессионального обучения

Higher education in Australia

Education in Australia is regulated by the individual state governments. Generally education in Australia follows the three-tier model which includes Primary education (Primary Schools), followed by Secondary education (Secondary Schools/High Schools) and Tertiary education (Universities and TAFE Technical and Further Education Colleges).

In Australia, the classification of tertiary qualifications is governed in part by Australian Qualification Framework, which attempts to integrate into a single classification all levels of tertiary education, from trade certificates to higher doctorates.

In Australia, higher education awards are classified as follows:
• Certificate and Associate Degrees, which take 1 - 2 years to complete and consist primarily of coursework;
• Bachelors degrees, generally the university degree undertaken, which takes 3 - 4 years to complete consist primarily of coursework;
• Masters degrees, which are undertaken after the completion of one or more Bachelor degrees. Masters degrees deal with a subject at a more advanced level than Bachelors degrees, and can consist either of research, coursework, or a mixture of two;
• Doctorates, most famously Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which are undertaken after a Honours Bachelors or Masters degree, by original research project resulting in a thesis or dissertation.
• Higher Doctorates, such as Doctor of Science (DCs) or Doctor of Letter (DLitt), which are awarded on the basis of a record of original research or of publications, over many years (often at least 10).

Australian Universities tend to award more named degrees than institutions in some other countries. Most Australian Universities offer several different named degrees per faculty. This is primarily for marketing purposes. Universities try to outdo each other by offering the degree titled with a popular major.

Topical Vocabulary

to regulate - регулировать

the three-tier model - трехъярусная модель

tertiary education - образование третьей ступени

to govern - управлять

certificate - сертификат

Associate Degrees - диплом

coursework - курсовая работа

Bachelors degrees - степень бакалавра

Masters degrees - степень магистра

Doctorate - докторская степень

Higher Doctorates - высшая учёная степень доктора наук

Doctor of Science - доктор наук

Doctor of Letter - доктор литературы

marketing purposes - маркетинговые цели

My research

Let me introduce myself to you. My name is Z.N. I am an assistant at the chair of entrepreneurship and business at the Krasnoyarsk State Agrarian University. I am interested in problems of economics and my scientific interest is ... .

I study at the post-graduate course and now I am taking candidate exams. I have been working on my problem for 2 years. My scientific supervisor is ... .

My scientific problem is not deeply studied now, but it is very important for our Russian economy. I am conducting research now. Research in general is defined as the systematic gathering, recording and analyzing of data. The five basic steps in research are:
- defining the problem;
- collecting secondary data;
- collecting primary data;
- compiling and collating the data;
- analyzing and interpreting the results.

I have already defined my problem. It is ... . Now, I am collecting secondary data. It is information easily obtained through examination of company records or through library research. I have already studied the books on my problem, such as ... by ... They give different views on my problem.

The next step for me is collecting primary data. There are three basic methods for collecting primary data.
- observation method;
- experimental method;
- survey method.

Experimental method is the basic approach used in science. Before introducing the results of my research into economy, it is necessary to test them in a limited location.

Survey method is also very important.

The next stage will be compiling and collating the data. I plan to process my data using the electronic data processing equipment. There is special software which can be used now, for example ...

The final step is interpreting the results. It involves using the data after it has been analyzed. It is very important as it exerts great influence on management decision relating to the original problem.

There are different ways of scientific material development:
- the first way is material development by listing. Here the author gives arguments, ideas and facts proving or rejecting the given statement.
- the second way is material development by examples. It is the example of method of listing, but here the examples are illustrated by tables, graphs, schemes and photos;
- the third way is material development by comparison. There are 2 ways of comparison. In the first case you alternate the examples relating to the phenomenon A with the examples relating to the phenomenon B. In the second case, first, you analyze all the examples relating to the phenomenon A, then - to the phenomenon B.
- the fourth way is material development by contrast. It is realized by collating heterogeneous aspects or qualities of two objects or phenomena, which differ greatly.
- the fifth way is material development by definition. It is used to introduce new terms, descriptions or concepts.
- the sixth way is material development by space and time. It is used with the equipment, connected with the analysis of changing space and time relations.
- the seventh way is material development by process description. It is used for describing steps of scientific experiments.
- the eighth way is material development by cause and effect.
- the ninth way is material development by generalization. Here first we analyze the examples proving the author's idea and then draw the generalized conclusion.

Topical Vocabulary

chair - кафедра

entrepreneurship - предпринимательство

scientific supervisor - научный руководитель

to conduct research - проводить научное исследование

to compile data - собирать данные (материал)

to collate data - сопоставлять данные

survey - обзор

to process data - обрабатывать данные

to exert great influence - оказывать большое влияние

to alternate - чередовать

heterogeneous - разнородный

to interpret results - объяснять, комментировать результаты

to draw a conclusion - делать вывод

Management

My specialty is management. Management has as many definitions as there are managers. Many people consider it to be an art of how to motivate people to give of their best. Others think that management is a science. In practical business management is the art and science of getting things done through other people. But management also includes those personnel who have the right to make decisions that influence company's affairs.

The overall responsibility for decision-making encompasses the following managerial functions: planning, organizing, coordinating, directing and controlling. Any managerial system at any managerial level is characterized in terms of these general functions.

There are different types of management; the most important of them are production management, financial management, human resources management, marketing management.

There are three management levels in the organization: top management, middle management and operating management. Top management includes the president, vice-president and the general manager. Middle management includes department managers, plant managers, and production superintendents. Operating management includes supervisors, foremen, etc.

Moving into managerial role involves making changes from the way you perform as a specialist. It is the transition from "doing the job" to "an uncertain supervisory role"; from "using technical skills" to "placing emphasis on people"; from "doing delegated tasks" to "having to delegate them to other people"; from "controlling the output" to "being judged on the output and quality".

Any manager can be successful only if he has his own team. Successful teams have several things in common. Here are 8 characteristics, which will help you to analyze the "health" of the team. They are as follows:
1. A mission
2. Common objectives
3. Interdependence of members
4. An effective relationship to the environment
5. A decision-making system
6. Well motivated members
7. An effective leader
8. Well-organized, effective meetings

If you want to be a successful manager, try to use all the above mentioned ideas in practical work.

Topical Vocabulary

an art of - искусство (чего-то)

to motivate - мотивировать

to make a decision - принимать решение

to influence company's affairs - влиять на дела компании

to be characterized in terms of - характеризоваться с точки зрения...

management levels - уровни управления

to include - включать

to move into managerial role - переходить в роль менеджера

uncertain supervisory role - неопределенная роль контролера

to place an emphasis - перемещать внимание

Marketing

My specialty is marketing. The marketing concept means that an organization should seek to make a profit by serving the needs of customer groups. This idea has been around for a long time. But some managers act as if they are stuck in the beginning of the production era - when there were shortages of most products. They show little interest in customers' needs.

These managers still have a production orientation - making whatever products are easy to produce and then trying to sell them. They think of customers existing to buy the firm's output rather than of firms existing to serve customers and - more broadly - the needs of society.

Well-managed firms have replaced this production orientation with a marketing orientation. A marketing orientation means trying to carry out the marketing concept. Instead of just trying to get customers to buy what the firm has produced, a marketing-oriented firm tries to produce what customers need. Three basic ideas are included in the definition of the marketing concept: a customer orientation, a total company effort, and profit as an objective.

"Give the customers what they need" seems quite obvious. However, in a typical company 30 years ago, each department (accounting, financial, etc.) thought of its own activity as the centre of the business. No one was concerned with the whole system.

Ideally, all managers should work together because the output from one department may be the input to another. And it is really so in an organization that has accepted the marketing concept. The total system's effort is guided by what customers want - instead of what each department would like to do.

This concept was first accepted by customer product companies such as General Electric and Procter & Gamble. Widespread publicity about the success of the marketing concept at these companies helped spread the message to other firms.

In such a firm, some internal departments - production, accounting and research and development - are mainly concerned with affairs inside the firm. The external departments are concerned with outsiders - sales, advertising and sales promotion. Finally, some departments - warehousing, shipping, purchasing and personnel -work with both insiders and outsiders.

But the marketing concept is more complete than many systems-oriented ideas. It actually specifies a high-level objective - customer satisfaction - that is logical for each and every part of the system. It also specifies a profit objective, which is necessary for the system's survival.

Topical Vocabulary

the marketing concept - концепция маркетинга

stuck - p.p. от stick, зд. остаться, застрять

output - выпуск, продукция, объем производства

an objective - цель

obvious - явный, очевидный

financial - финансовый

to be concerned - быть занятым, заниматься ч-л., зд. иметь дело с ч. -либо

input - ввод; затраты (на производство)

to guide - руководить, направлять

message - сообщение, зд. информация

internal - внутренний

external - внешний

advertising - рекламирование, реклама

to specify - определять, устанавливать

Mechanical engineering

My specialty is mechanical engineering. Mechanical engineering has been recognized as a separate branch of engineering since the formation of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers of Great Britain in 1847.

Mechanical Engineering deals with the design, construction and operation of machines and devices of all kinds, and with research and sciences upon which they depend. Among these machines are prime movers such as engines and turbines using air, gas, steam and water as operating media; pumping machines and other hydraulic apparatus; steam boilers, heating, ventilating, air conditioning and refrigerating equipment, transportation structures used in aviation; automotive engineering, railroads and ships, machine-tools, special machines for industry and for construction of buildings, railroads and harbors. In fact, mechanical engineering enters into the work of every engineer.

The engineer typifies the twentieth century. He is making the vast contribution in design, engineering and promotion. He may be designing the product itself; inventing new products; testing the product, its components, and the materials in it; analyzing its performance and making a mathematical analysis. He may be engaged in the development of the new product, making drawings and specifications.

He may be concerning himself with the development of a new production process, or the adaptation of a current process to a new product. He may be utilizing his engineering know-how in determining the best processes and equipment for the mass production of high-quality products.

Topical Vocabulary

separate branch - отдельная отрасль

design - проектирование

construction - строительство

to depend on (upon) - зависеть от

prime movers - первичные двигатели (источники энергии)

engine - двигатель

steam boilers - паровые бойлеры

machine-tools - станки

vast contribution - значительный вклад

to invent - изобретать

to analyze the performance - анализировать показатели

to be engaged in - быть занятым в

to utilize - использовать

to determine - определять

high-quality products - высококачественная продукция

Ecology

My specialty is ecology. Ecology is a relatively new science. It is a science closely connected with hydrology, geochemistry, micrometeorology, geomorphology, etc.

Many scientists consider it to be a branch of biology that deals with the habits of living things, especially their relation to their environment. Ecology is developing very quickly as there is a great need in preventing air pollution, river pollution, forests cutting, etc.

Everyone knows today that terrestrial ecosystem is a delimited part of the biogeochemical cycles of the earth. The ecosystem is an open system; it receives energy from the sun and materials and energy from the biogeochemical cycles. It processes these materials and discharges outputs to the larger cycles. Activities from the ecosystem are governed by the nature of inputs and man can have major effects on the structure and function of ecosystems by advertent or inadvertent effects on inputs.

Phenomena, such as weathering, nitrogen fixation or biomass accumulation can be evaluated in an ecosystems context, and special strategies should be studied in relation to temporal and special biochemical variations. Interrelations among biogeochemical processes animate and inanimate structure of the ecosystem, species behavior within the ecosystem and how these relationships change through the time are very important issues of ecology. Many scientists place special emphasis on the role of biological process in controlling destabilizing forces to which every ecosystem is continually subjected.

Topical vocabulary

terrestrial - земной

advertent - чуткий

weathering - подверженность атмосферным воздействиям

nitrogen fixation - сгущение азота

temporal - временный

spatial - пространственный

behavior - поведение

to be subjected - подвергаться

pollution - загрязнение

cutting - вырубка

Law

My specialty is law. The law exists to ensure that civilized life is possible. The law involves compulsion, the Constitution, the framework and the system.
• Compulsion. The law ensures that every person can live without being attacked or robbed. The government provides the legal machine with the weapon of compulsion: police, to enforce the law and catch people who break it, courts to establish guilt or innocence, and prison to punish offenders.
• The Constitution. The Constitution is the basic law of the country. It consists of definite articles. Government itself is defined by constitutional law.
• The framework. The law provides the framework within which we can protect ourselves. As individuals we want to make private arrangements and be sure that if others break their word we'll get compensation for loss. We must also get compensation for being hurt or for our property being destroyed.
• The system. To achieve all these things the law must be consistent and be consistently applied.

The law must deal with the whole society and must serve us as individuals. Public law deals with society as a whole and citizen's relationships with society. It includes:
- Criminal law
- Constitutional law
- Tax law
- Administrative law

Private law deals with the relationships between individuals, groups and organizations. It includes:
- Family law
- Company law
- Contract law
- The law of torts

Topical Vocabulary

compulsion - принуждение

framework - структура, каркас

legal machine - юридический механизм

definite articles - определенные статьи

property - собственность

destroy - разрушать

public law - общественное право

criminal law - уголовное право

tax law - налоговое право

law of torts - закон о правонарушениях

Land survey

My specialty is land survey. Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually associated with positions on the surface of the Earth, and are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes. In order to accomplish their objective, surveyors use elements of geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law. Surveying has been an essential element in the development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history and it is a requirement in the planning and execution of nearly every form of construction. Its most familiar modern uses are in the fields of transport, building and construction, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. There are different types of survey:
• Archaeological survey: used to accurately assess the relationship of archaeological sites in a landscape.
• Bathymetric Survey: a survey carried out to map the seabed profile.
• Construction surveying: the process of establishing and marking the position and detailed layout of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent construction.
• Deformation Survey: a survey to determine if a structure or object is changing shape or moving. The three-dimensional positions of specific points on an object are determined, a period of time is allowed to pass, these positions are then re-measured and calculated, and a comparison between the two sets of positions is made.
• Engineering Surveys: those surveys associated with the engineering design (topographic, layout and as-built) often requiring geodetic computations beyond normal civil engineering practice.
• Foundation Survey: a survey done to collect the positional data on a foundation that has been poured and is cured.
• Geological Survey: generic term for a survey conducted for the purpose of recording the geologically significant features of the area under investigation.
• Hydrographic Survey: a survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the coastline and seabed for navigation, engineering, or resource management purposes. Products of such surveys are nautical charts.
• Mortgage Survey or Physical Survey: a simple survey that generally determines land boundaries and building locations.
• Soil survey, or soil mapping, is the process of determining the soil types or other properties of the soil cover over a landscape, and mapping them for others to understand and use.
• Topographic Survey: a survey that measures the elevation of points on a particular piece of land, and presents them as contours on a plot.

The basic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, but the tools used by surveyors have evolved tremendously. Engineering depends heavily on surveyors. Whenever there are roads, dams, retaining walls, bridges or residential areas to be built, surveyors are involved. They determine the boundaries of private property and the boundaries of various lines of political divisions. They also provide advice and data for geographical information systems computer databases that contain data on land features and boundaries.

Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, geometry, and trigonometry. They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, property, and contracts. In addition, they must be able to use delicate instruments with accuracy and precision.

Topical vocabulary

terrestrial - земной

three-dimensional - трёхмерный

surface - поверхность

land maps - карты земли

transport - транспорт

building and construction - строительство

communications - коммуникации

mapping - вычерчивание карт, нанесение на карту

the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership - определение правовых границ для владения землей

nautical charts - морские карты

Veterinary science

My specialty is veterinary medicine. Veterinary medicine is the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife, and production animals. Veterinary science is vital to the study and protection of animal production practices, herd health and monitoring the spread of disease. It requires the acquisition and application of scientific knowledge in multiple disciplines and uses technical skills directed at disease prevention in both domestic and wild animals.

Veterinary science helps safeguard human health through the careful monitoring of livestock, companion animal and wildlife health. Emerging zoonotic diseases around the globe require capabilities in epidemiology and infectious disease control that are particularly well-suited to veterinary science's "herd health" approach.

Veterinary medicine is informally as old as the human/animal bond but in recent years has expanded exponentially because of the availability of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic techniques for most species. Animals nowadays often receive advanced medical, dental, and surgical care including insulin injections, root canals, hip replacements, cataract extractions, and pacemakers.

Veterinary specialization has become more common in recent years. Currently 20 veterinary specialties are recognized including anesthesiology, behavior, dermatology, emergency and critical care, internal medicine, cardiology, oncology, neurology, radiology and surgery. Veterinarians assist in ensuring the quality, quantity, and security of food supplies by working to maintain the health of livestock and inspecting the meat itself. Veterinary scientists occupy important positions in biological, chemical, agricultural and pharmaceutical research.

In many countries, equine veterinary medicine is also a specialized field. Clinical work with horses involves mainly locomotors and orthopedic problems, digestive tract disorders (including equine colic, which is a major cause of death among domesticated horses), and respiratory tract infections and disease.

Zoological medicine, which encompasses the healthcare of zoo and wild animal populations, is another veterinary specialty that has grown in importance and sophistication in recent years as wildlife conservation has become more urgent.

As in the human health field, veterinary medicine (in practice) requires a diverse group of individuals to meet the needs of patients. Veterinarians must complete four years of study in a veterinary school following 3-4 years of undergraduate pre-veterinary work. They then must sit for examination in those states in which they wish to become licensed practitioners. It is widely believed that veterinary school is the hardest to gain acceptance into among the various medical professions. In fact, among medical practitioners, veterinarians are routinely ranked the most intelligent and trustworthy. They are expected to diagnose and treat disease in a variety of different species without benefit of verbal communication with their patients. In addition to veterinarians, many veterinary hospitals utilize a team of veterinary technicians and veterinary assistants to provide care for sick as well as healthy animals.

Topical Vocabulary

application - применение

medical - медицинский

diagnostic - диагностический

therapeutic principles - терапевтические принципы

domestic - домашний

exotic - экзотический

wildlife - дикий

protection - защита

disease prevention - профилактика болезней

diagnostic and therapeutic techniques - диагностические и терапевтические методики

to diagnose and treat disease - диагностировать и лечить болезнь

equine veterinary - ветеринария лошадей

Mathematical modeling

My specialty is mathematical modeling. A model is a physical, mathematical, or logical representation of a system entity, phenomenon, or process. A simulation is the implementation of a model over time. A simulation brings a model to life and shows how a particular object or phenomenon will behave. It is useful for testing, analysis or training where real-world systems or concepts can be represented by a model. A mathematical model is an abstract model that uses mathematical language to describe a system. Mathematical models are used particularly in the natural sciences and engineering disciplines (such as physics, biology, and electrical engineering) but also in the social sciences (such as economics, sociology and political science); physicists, engineers, computer scientists, and economists use mathematical models most extensively.

Eykhoff (1974) defined a mathematical model as "a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) which presents knowledge of that system in usable form".

Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures.

Often when engineers analyze a system to be controlled or optimized, they use a mathematical model. In analysis, engineers can build a descriptive model of the system as a hypothesis of how the system could work, or try to estimate how an unforeseeable event could affect the system. Similarly, in control of a system, engineers can try out different control approaches in simulations.

A mathematical model usually describes a system by a set of variables and a set of equations that establish relationships between the variables. The values of the variables can be practically anything; real or integer numbers, boolean values or strings, for example. The variables represent some properties of the system, for example, measured system outputs often in the form of signals, timing data, counters, event occurrence (yes/no). The actual model is the set of functions that describe the relations between the different variables. There are six basic groups of variables: decision variables, input variables, state variables, exogenous variables, random variables, and output variables. Since there can be many variables of each type, the variables are generally represented by vectors.

A crucial part of the modeling process is the evaluation of whether or not a given mathematical model describes a system accurately. This question can be difficult to answer as it involves several different types of evaluation. Modeling is an essential and inseparable part of all scientific activity. The professional modeler brings special skills and techniques to bear in order to produce results that are insightful, reliable, and useful. The techniques include sophisticated statistical methods, computer simulation, system identification, and sensitivity analysis are valuable tools. They however are not as important as the ability to understand the underlying dynamics of a complex system. These insights are needed to assess whether the assumptions of a model are correct and complete. The modeler must be able to recognize whether a model reflects reality, and to identify and deal with divergences between theory and data.

One of the main aims of scientific modeling is to apply quantitative reasoning to observations about the world, in the hope of seeing aspects that may have escaped the notice of others. Now there are many specific techniques that modelers use, which enable us to discover aspect of reality that may not be obvious to everyone. One of the essentials is the understanding of the role that assumptions play in the development of the model. The usual approach to model development is to characterize the system, make some assumptions about how it works and translate these into equations and a simulation program. After simulation one of the final steps is the validation. The question if we can trust the data the model presented.

Topical Vocabulary

physical - физический

mathematical - математический

logical representation of a system entity - логическая репрезентация бытия системы

phenomenon - феномен

process - процесс

testing, analysis or training - тестирование, анализ или обучение

representation of the essential aspects - репрезентация существенных аспектов

variables - переменные величины

to reflect reality - отражать реальность

to identify and deal with divergences between theory and data - идентифицировать и иметь дело с расхождением между теорией и данными

boolean - логический

Philosophy

My specialty is philosophy. It is the most ancient science in the world history. It appeared in 7-6 centuries before A.D. when 7 ancient men of wisdom started asking questions about the universe. Philosophy appearance is caused by social and gnoseological reasons. First of all there was a need in people who were to describe social laws. Speaking about gnoseological reasons we should mention the man's ability to get surprised and to reflect the objective reality. "Philosophy" is translated from the Greek language as "love for wisdom". This name was introduced by Pythagoras and till the 19th century it was "the queen of sciences".

Some people don't consider philosophy to be a science. But it is science, but a very special, abstract and universal science. It has its own object, subject, means, categories and laws. Philosophy studies objective reality and the individual. It includes ontology, dialectics, praxiology, value theory, logics, and esthetics. The main functions of philosophy are to form world-view of the individual and to give methodology for different sciences. It is realized through the usage of different philosophical methods, logical methods, and applied methods.

The main issue of philosophy existed from the very beginning but was formulated by Engels in the 19th century. This issue has two main sections. The first one is ontological - what is primary: the objective reality or spirit? Philosophers are divided into materialists (those who believe that the objective reality is primary) and idealists (those who believe that the spirit is primary). The second section is gnoseological - is the objective reality knowable? The philosophers are divided into cognitivists (those who believe it is possible to cognize the objective reality), skeptics (those who doubt) and agnostics (those who consider the objective reality to be unknowable). The main philosophical methods are dialectics and metaphysics. Dialectics considers all the phenomena in their development and metaphysics - in stagnation.

There are different periods in the history of philosophy: ancient philosophy, philosophy of middle ages, the Renaissance, the classical German philosophy, Marxist philosophy and modern West and Russian philosophy.

Topical Vocabulary

men of wisdom - мудрецы

the universe - вселенная

social and gnoseological reasons - социальные и гносеологические причины

objective reality - объективная реальность

abstract and universal science - абстрактная и всеобщая наука

to form world-view - формировать мировоззрение

to give methodology - давать методологию

the main issue - основной вопрос

cognitivists - когнитивисты

skeptics - скептики

agnostics - агностики

Hydrology

My specialty is hydrology. Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth and thus addresses both the hydrological cycle and water resources. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of earth or environmental science, physical geography or civil and environmental engineering. Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, and hydrogeology.

Hydrology is an ancient science. Hydrological research is very useful because it allows better understanding the world we are living in and provides insight for environmental engineering, policy and planning. Since the 1950', hydrology has been approached with a more theoretical basis than in the past, facilitated by advances of physical understanding of hydrological processes and by the appearance of computers.

The central theme of hydrology is that water moves throughout the Earth through different pathways and at different rates. The most vivid image of this is the evaporation of water from the ocean, which forms the clouds. These clouds drift over the land and produce rain. The rainwater flows into lakes, rivers. The water in lakes and rivers then either evaporates back to the atmosphere or eventually flows back to the ocean, completing the cycle.

There are different branches in hydrology. The most famous are:
• Chemical hydrology studies the chemical characteristics of water;
• Ecohydrology studies interactions between organisms and the hydrological cycle;
• Hydrogeology studies the presence and movement of water in aquifers.
• Hydroinformatics adapts information technology to hydrology and water resources application.
• Hydrometeorology studies the transfer of water and energy between land and water body surfaces and the low atmosphere;
• Isotope hydrology studies isotopic signatures of water;
• Surface hydrology studies hydrological processes that operate at or near the Earth's surface.

Topical Vocabulary

movement - движение

distribution - распределение

quality of water - качество воды

a hydrologist - гидролог

domain - сфера, область

hydrometeorology - гидрометеорология

surface hydrology - гидрология поверхности

hydrogeology - гидрогеология

hydrological process - гидрологический процесс

evaporation - испарение

clouds - облака

chemical hydrology - химическая гидрология

hydroinformatics - гидроинформатика

Earth's surface - поверхность Земли

Information technology

My specialty is information technology. Information technology (IT) is defined as the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware. IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, place, process, protect, transmit and securely retrieve the information.

Today the term information technology encompasses many aspects of computing and technology. The duties of IT professionals include a wide range from installing applications to designing a complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as the management and administration of entire systems.

Talking about the information science we should mention that it is the interdisciplinary science concerned with collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. Information science studies the application and sage of knowledge in organizations and the interaction between people, organizations and information systems.

Topics in information science are:
• Bibliometrics - is a set of quantitative methods used to study or measure texts and information;
• Data modeling - creates data models;
• Document management - tracks and stores electronic documents or images of paper documents;
• Human computer interaction - studies interaction between computers and users;
• Information architecture - structures information for a definite purpose;
• Information retrieval - is the science of searching for information in documents, searching for documents themselves, searching for data.

Topical Vocabulary

study - изучение

design - разработка

development - развитие

implementation - выполнение, осуществление

support - поддержка

to encompass - заключать, включать

installing - установка

information databases - информационные системы

collection - сбор

classification - классификация

manipulation - обращение

storage - хранение

retrieval - восстановление

dissemination - распространение

interaction between people - взаимодействие между людьми